Fuel cells are electrochemical energy conversion devices that convert an external source fuel into electrical current. Many fuel cells use hydrogen as the fuel and oxygen (typically from air) as an oxidant. The by-product for such a fuel cell is water, making the fuel cell a very low environmental impact device for generating power.
Fuel cells compete with numerous other technologies for producing power, such as the gasoline turbine, the internal combustion engine, and the battery. A fuel cell provides a direct current (DC) voltage that can be used for numerous applications including stationary power generation, lighting, back-up power, consumer electronics, personal mobility devices, such as electric bicycles, as well as landscaping equipment, and other applications. There are a wide variety of fuel cells available, each using a different chemistry to generate power. Fuel cells are usually classified according to their operating temperature and the type of electrolyte system that they utilize. One common fuel cell is the polymer exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC), which uses hydrogen as the fuel with oxygen (usually air) as its oxidant. It has a high power density and a low operating temperature of usually below 80° C. These fuel cells are reliable with modest packaging and system implementation requirements.
The challenge of hydrogen storage and generation has limited the wide-scale adoption of PEM fuel cells. Although molecular hydrogen has a very high energy density on a mass basis, as a gas at ambient conditions it has very low energy density by volume. The techniques employed to provide hydrogen to portable applications are widespread, including high pressure and cryogenics, but they have most often focused on chemical compounds that reliably release hydrogen gas on-demand. Three broadly accepted mechanisms used to store hydrogen in materials are absorption, adsorption, and chemical reaction.
In absorptive hydrogen storage for fueling a fuel cell, hydrogen gas is absorbed directly at high pressure into the bulk of a specific crystalline material, such as a metal hydride. Metal hydrides such as MgH2, NaAlH4, and LaNi5H6, can be used to store the hydrogen gas reversibly. However, metal hydride systems often suffer from poor specific energy (i.e., a low hydrogen storage to metal hydride mass ratio) and poor input/output flow characteristics. The hydrogen flow characteristics are driven by the endothermic properties of metal hydrides (the internal temperature drops when removing hydrogen and rises when recharging with hydrogen). Because of these properties, metal hydrides tend to be heavy and require complicated systems to rapidly charge and/or discharge them. For example, see U.S. Pat. No. 7,271,567 for a system designed to store and then controllably release pressurized hydrogen gas from a cartridge containing a metal hydride or some other hydrogen-based chemical fuel. This system also monitors the level of remaining hydrogen capable of being delivered to the fuel cell by measuring the temperature and/or the pressure of the metal hydride fuel itself and/or by measuring the current output of the fuel cell to estimate the amount of hydrogen consumed.
In adsorption hydrogen storage for fueling a fuel cell, molecular hydrogen is associated with the chemical fuel by either physisorption or chemisorption. Chemical hydrides, such as lithium hydride (LiH), lithium aluminum hydride (LiAlH4), lithium borohydride (LiBH4), sodium hydride (NaH), sodium borohydride (NaBH4), and the like, are used to store hydrogen gas non-reversibly. Chemical hydrides produce large amounts of hydrogen gas upon reaction with water as shown below:NaBH4+2H2O→NaBO2+4H2 
To reliably control the reaction of chemical hydrides with water to release hydrogen gas from a fuel storage device, a catalyst must be employed along with control of the water's pH. Additionally, the chemical hydride is often embodied in a slurry of inert stabilizing liquid to protect the hydride from early release of its hydrogen gas.
In chemical reaction methods for producing hydrogen for a fuel cell, often hydrogen storage and hydrogen release are catalyzed by a modest change in temperature or pressure of the chemical fuel. One example of this chemical system, which is catalyzed by temperature, is hydrogen generation from ammonia-borane by the following reaction:NH3BH3→NH2BH2+H2→NHBH+H2 
The first reaction releases 6.1 wt. % hydrogen and occurs at approximately 120° C., while the second reaction releases another 6.5 wt. % hydrogen and occurs at approximately 160° C. These chemical reaction methods do not use water as an initiator to produce hydrogen gas, do not require a tight control of the system pH, and often do not require a separate catalyst material. However, these chemical reaction methods are plagued with system control issues often due to the common occurrence of thermal runaway. See, for example, U.S. Pat. No. 7,682,411, for a system designed to thermally initialize hydrogen generation from ammonia-borane and to protect from thermal runaway. See, for example, U.S. Pat. Nos. 7,316,788 and 7,578,992, for chemical reaction methods that employ a catalyst and a solvent to change the thermal hydrogen release conditions.
As more and more application for fuel cells are developed, new and improved designs for fuel cell cartridges which provide the hydrogen to the fuel cell system are needed.